Introduction

The history of Shanghai can be traced back to more than 6,000 years ago and the Majiabang and Songze cultures. After Taibo fled to Wu and its inhabitants were overthrown by the Zhou Dynasty, the region was annexed to the Central Plains. Subsequently, due to its mild climate and coastal location, Shanghai gradually became a salt-producing region. After the establishment of the Eastern Wu Dynasty, development accelerated. During the Tang and Song Dynasties, with the emergence of the independent county of Huating, a significant improvement in administrative divisions was achieved. The name “Shanghai” as an administrative region also appeared during this period. After the Yuan Dynasty, Huating County was upgraded to Songjiang Province and Shanghai City to Shanghai County. During the Ming Dynasty, with the advancement of cotton spinning technology in the Shanghai region, Songjiang Province became a major center for cotton fabric production in the country and gained world fame in this field. The Huangpu River also became the largest river in the Shanghai area during the Ming Dynasty. In the late Qing Dynasty, due to its defeat in the First Opium War, Shanghai became one of the first treaty ports to open to foreign trade, thus beginning its modernization process. By the 1920s, Shanghai had become a leading international metropolis in the Far East and was considered the financial capital of Asia. After the Civil War in 1945 and the subsequent rule of the Chinese Communist Party, the value of the currency rapidly depreciated and prices rose sharply. 1.5 million refugees, including talented and wealthy people, fled Shanghai to Hong Kong. After the reform and opening up in 1978, Shanghai developed again and became one of China’s important windows to the world.

Shanghai in ancient times

The land of Shanghai was formed in the recent period of geological history. More than 6,000 years ago, only the three western regions of Qingpu, Songjiang and Jinshan in the Shanghai region were basically formed as dry land. These dry areas were all lake swamps (especially the Qingpu and Songjiang regions) and lakeside plains that were formed after the silting of the ancient Taihu Lake. From then until the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty, dry land formed very slowly in the central plains. About 3,000 years ago, most or part of the western regions of Jiading, Minhang and Fengxian were formed. According to the available archaeological results, the earliest civilization in Shanghai is the Majiabang culture (6,000 years ago). Then came the Songze culture (5,500 years ago). In the spring of 2004, the oldest human remains in Shanghai were discovered during the archaeological excavation of the Songze culture tombs in Qingpu. Then there was the Liangzhou culture (4200 years ago), which was fully developed in its later period and is mostly famous for its jade artifacts. The Majiabang-Songze-Liangzhou cultures have a dynastic relationship. The Liangzhou culture has reached the final stage of primitive society. The Liangzhou culture declined rapidly, and the main hypotheses for its decline have been expressed in the form of theories such as the flood theory and the theory of blocked development or invasion. Finally, there is the Makiao culture (3200 years ago), which, compared with the Liangzhou culture, has a reduced number and refinement of artifacts discovered, and its cultural style is more influenced by the archaeological culture of the Minjiang River Basin and the Yueshi (Dongyi) culture of Shandong. The early civilization of the formation of the Shanghai land, as part of the organic whole of the Jiangnan region civilization, has a certain level of development. Based on historical events from the Spring and Autumn Period, it is inferred that by the end of the prehistoric period, these civilizations were probably gradually falling within the spheres of influence of the powerful states of Yue to the south or Wu to the west, or even partially under their rule.

From the Zhou Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Shanghai was located on the border between the states of Wu and Yue. During the Warring States Period, in the third year of the reign of King Yuan of the Zhou Dynasty (the twenty-fourth year of the reign of King Gujian of the Yue Dynasty, 473 BC), Yue conquered Wu and the Shanghai region was assigned to Yue. In the middle of the Warring States Period, Chu conquered Yue and Shanghai became part of Chu. In the fifteenth year of the reign of King Caoli of the Chu Dynasty (248 BC), Huang Shi, one of the Four Lords of the Warring States, settled in Wu and Shanghai was part of his territory. The Huangpu River, which flows through modern Shanghai, is also called the Chunshen River, hence the alternative name for Shanghai, “Shen”. After the unification of China, Kuaiji Commandery was established in Wu County (present-day Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province). The western part of present-day Jiading District belonged to Lu County (northeast of present-day Kunshan City, Jiangsu Province); the western part of Gangshen District was in present-day Songjiang County, Qingpu County, and Minhang County was in the territory of Yuchuan County (south of present-day Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province); the western part of Gangshen District was in present-day Jinshan County and Fengxian County was in Haiyan County (south of present-day Zhangyan City, Jinshan District). In the early Western Han Dynasty, the Shanghai region was divided between the territories of King Han Xin of Chu, King Liu Jia of Jing, and King Liu Bei of Wu. During the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties, the region belonged to the three counties of Lu, Yuchuan, and Haiyan. During the Three Kingdoms and Dynasties of China, the Shanghai area was divided between the three counties of Lu, Jiaxing, and Haiyan of Wu Governorate. In the 24th year of Jian’an (219 AD) of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Lu Xun, a famous general of Eastern Wu, was appointed Marquis of Huating. This was the first time the place name “Huating” appeared in official history and is often considered the beginning of Shanghai’s local history. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the divisions of the

The Eryi changed frequently, and the Shanghai region was under the jurisdiction of Yangzhou. After the Sui Dynasty destroyed the Southern Chen Dynasty, the Shanghai region was divided between Suzhou and Hangzhou. Today’s Jiading District, most of Qingpu County, and the northwestern part of Songjiang County belonged to Kunshan County. Most of today’s Songjiang County, the northwestern part of Jinshan County, and the southwestern part of Qingpu belonged to Wu County. Most of today’s Jinshan County and parts of Fengxian County belonged to Yangguan County.

Shanghai during the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties

By the middle of the Tang Dynasty, agriculture, fishing, and salt production had developed to some extent in the area of ​​present-day Shanghai. In 751 AD, Huating County (the county seat of which is now Songjiang City, Songjiang County) was established under the jurisdiction of Suzhou, marking the beginning of county-level administration in the Shanghai region. The territory of Huating County roughly included the area south of the old route of the Wusong River and west of the Chuansha-Huinan-Datuan line in Shanghai District. Shanghai District was under the jurisdiction of both Kunshan and Huating County. Early in the Northern Song Dynasty, Xuzhou (with its capital in present-day Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province) was established in the southern part of Suzhou, and Huating County came under its jurisdiction. At this time, the eastern shores of Huating County had become important salt fields, densely populated and a place for ships to pass through, and trade was increasingly flourishing. In 1119 AD (the first year of the Xuanhe period of the Northern Song Dynasty), with the dredging of the Songjiang River (Wusong River, i.e. Suzhou Creek), Qinglong City on the south bank of the Songjiang River, north of the county center, became a thriving commercial center (now located in Qingpu District). According to the Song poet Mi Yaochen in the Qinglong Journal, Qinglong City had twenty-two bridges, thirty-six sections, and “three mansions, seven pagodas, thirteen temples, and ten thousand households with incense smoke”, and was praised by the people as “Little Hangzhou”. In 1132, the Maritime Trade Office was established in Qinglong City. But Shanghai, which was a port of Huating at that time, was still a deserted fishing village. At the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, due to siltation in the upper reaches of the Wusong River, Qinglong City gradually lost its position as a good port at the mouth of the Yangtze River and became increasingly deserted. At this time, the center of trade was moved to the northeast of Huating County, on the west side of the Shanghaipu, a small river 70 km downstream of Qinglong City, where it transformed from a fishing village into a small, medium-sized city. In the third year of Xianchun of the Southern Song Dynasty (1267), the city of Shanghai was officially founded and a city general was sent to settle there. Shortly thereafter, the Mongol army invaded Jiangnan and the Southern Song Dynasty was destroyed. In 1277 (the 14th year of the Zhiyuan era), the Yuan Dynasty established the Shanghai Maritime Trade Office, making it one of the seven major maritime trade offices in the country, along with those in Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Wenzhou, Hangzhou, Qingyuan (Ningbo), and Ganpu (Haian). On August 19, 1291, the Yuan Dynasty approved the establishment of Shanghai County, with its headquarters in the area now the former Nanshi District (now part of Huangpu District) in central Shanghai, under the jurisdiction of Songjiang Province. This was the beginning of Shanghai as a county.

Shanghai in the Ming Dynasty

During the Ming Dynasty, the Shanghai area along the old course of the Wusong River was divided between Songjiang Province and Suzhou Province. Suzhou Province originally included Huating County and Shanghai County, and later Qingpu County was added during the Jiajing and Wanli dynasties. Suzhou Province included Jiading County and Chongming County. During the Yongle reign (early 15th century), to address the long-standing sedimentation and navigation problems of the Wusong River, the government undertook a major water conservancy project called the “Huangpu Diversion from Wusong”, which widened the lower reaches of both the Huangpu and Wusong Rivers. The original lower reaches of the Wusong River became the outlet of the Huangpu River to the sea. In the third year of the Longqing reign, Hai Rui supervised the Wusong River Water Conservancy Project, and the Wusong River subsequently became a tributary of the Huangpu River. From then on, the Huangpu River became the main shipping route in the area.

For more than 240 years after Shanghai was founded as a city, there was no city wall. It was not until 1553 (during the Jiajing Dynasty) that an oval-shaped Shanghai City Wall was quickly built in two months to defend against Japanese pirates. The wall was 4.5 km long and 7 m high, and had 6 city gates. Among them, 3 city gates faced the Huangpu River on the east side: Baodai Gate (commonly known as Xiaodongmen), Chaozong Gate (Dadongmen), and Chaoyang Gate (Xiaonanmen). These 3 city gates and Yifeng Gate (Laoximen) on the west side all had water gates. A moat approximately 20 m wide was dug outside the city. Like other cities in the Taihu Lake basin, the city was intersected by a dense network of rivers, and most streets were built along their banks. The most important waterway within the city was the Zhaojiabang, which connected directly to the East Gate and the West Gate and led to the Huangpu River in the east (at the intersection of Weima Road and East Fuxing Road, south of Baidu Road) and to the city of Songjiang in the west. Other waterways included the Fangbang and the Shujiabang. During the Ming dynasty, the area was under the jurisdiction of the Tan Songjiang was the largest cotton textile center in the country.

Shanghai before and after the Opium Wars

In 1685 (the twenty-fourth year of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign), after the conquest of Taiwan in 1683, a customs office was established in Shanghai to replace part of the functions of the Guangzhou Customs Office in Fujian. In the early Qing dynasty, Shanghai’s administrative divisions underwent further changes, gradually forming the scale of modern Shanghai. In 1842, British forces occupied Shanghai, then advanced westward along the Yangtze River and captured Zhenjiang, the confluence of the Grand Canal and the Yangtze River, cutting off the Qing government’s financial resources from the south and forcing Emperor Daoguang to accept negotiations. On August 29, 1842, the Treaty of Nanjing was signed between China and Britain, stipulating that in addition to the existing port of Guangzhou, Shanghai, Ningbo, Fuzhou, and Xiamen would be newly opened as treaty ports (known as the “Five Treaty Ports”), allowing British residents to reside and trade there (later, more than a dozen other countries successively gained this right).

On November 17, 1843, Balfour, the first British consul in Shanghai, arrived to take up his post, marking the official inauguration of Shanghai as a treaty port. The first group of British trading companies to arrive that year were from Guangdong. They recognized the promising development prospects of Shanghai as the port that was closest of the five treaty ports to the silk and tea-producing regions. At that time, China’s main export raw silk was produced near Nanshun City in Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, and inland waterway transportation from Nanshun to Shanghai was very convenient. After negotiations, the British Consul and the Shanghai Daotai (local official) allocated land for British merchants to trade and reside on the west bank of the Huangpu River, north of the city center. In the first year of Shanghai’s opening to foreign trade, in addition to merchants and consuls, British missionaries from the London Missionary Society also quickly arrived in Shanghai in 1843.

The Qing government hoped to follow the precedent set in Guangzhou and implement a policy of segregating the residence of Chinese and foreigners in Shanghai. Therefore, on November 29, 1845, the Shanghai Daotai and the British Consul in Shanghai jointly agreed on the first territorial regulations (also known as the “territorial regulations”). This territorial charter is the legal basis for the existence and operation of the Shanghai Concession. The following year, the British residents in Shanghai established a self-governing body—the Roads and Wharfs Committee—and built the Boundary Road (now the Henan Middle Road) to clearly define the western boundary of the concession. In the early days of Shanghai’s opening to foreign trade, a strict separation of Chinese and foreign residents was enforced in the British Concession. Only a small number of old-time Chinese farmers lived there, while foreign residents from Britain, America, and other countries numbered approximately 300, the vast majority of whom were British. A network of roads was built within the concession area. In 1848, British missionaries from the London Missionary Society went to Qingpu County to preach, causing controversy. In 1844, the Sino-American Treaty was signed in Wangxia, the content of which referred to the Sino-British Treaty of Nanjing. After that, American missionaries and merchants also began to come to Shanghai. Unlike the British immigrant community, which was largely composed of merchants, the American immigrant community included a larger share of missionaries. In the early days of Shanghai’s opening to foreign trade, the American concession at Hongkou was completely deserted due to the blockage of the Suzhou Canal, with only a few wharves, docks, and recreational areas for sailors built along the riverbank. In 1846, the first American merchant, Lantry J. Wolcott, arrived in Shanghai and was appointed temporary consul. He raised the American flag at his trading company on Jiujiang Road in the British concession, becoming the first foreign flag to be raised in the concession (at that time, the British Consulate was still located in the center of Shanghai County). This event prompted the intervention of the British consul. Subsequently, the vast majority of American trading companies were located in the British concession south of the Suzhou Canal. The most famous American trading firm in Shanghai during the 19th century was Russell & Co.

In October 1844, the Treaty of Whampoa was signed between China and France. In 1848, a French consul took up residence in Shanghai. On April 6, 1849, the Shanghai Daotai (local official) announced the creation of a 986-hectare area adjacent to the north gate of the city center, extending north to Yangjingbang, which was to be known as the French Concession Area. However, the number of French merchants trading in China was very small. Therefore, despite its favorable location in the early days of the treaty, the French Concession Area saw almost no development. Only one or two French trading companies (mainly engaged in Swiss watches) were located along the riverbank, and the French consulate was located in a Chinese-style villa belonging to the Catholic Church (South Sichuan Road).

Shanghai in the 1850s to 1900s

From the 1850s to the early 20th century, Shanghai experienced a turbulent but fateful period, one marked by bloody uprisings and conflicts, and culminating in a boom in trade, development, and The industrial revolution and the expansion of foreign influence led to a large-scale uprising. On September 7, 1853, the “Small Swordsmen’s Society”, a secret society active among the sailors of Guangdong and Fujian, launched a large-scale uprising, occupying Shanghai County, burning down the city’s government buildings and customs, killing the local magistrate, and imprisoning the Shanghai Daotai. However, the group was forced to retreat from the city on February 17, 1855. At the same time, in March 1853, the “Taiping Heavenly Kingdom” captured Nanjing, and the danger of the Taiping forces approaching Shanghai greatly increased.

On April 12 of that year, foreigners living in the Shanghai concessions took urgent action in response to the developments in the region. At the insistence of the British, French, and United States consuls, a conference was held among the western residents of the concessions, and it was decided to organize a volunteer force called the “International Merchant Corps” and maintain armed neutrality to protect the concessions. Shortly thereafter, on April 4, 1854, when Qing forces attempted to enter the city through the concessions and attack the Small Swordsmen’s Association’s positions in the city center, the International Merchant Corps, aided by British and American naval forces, blocked their path; an event known as the “Battle of Geli City”.

This turbulent period continued into the 1860s. On August 17, 1860, the Taiping army launched its first attack on Shanghai. The Taiping’s second major attempt to capture Shanghai occurred on January 11, 1862, and the third battle took place in August of that year. The Taiping forces advanced only as far as what is now the City God Temple and the Shikumen Houses, before being forced to retreat. In November 1862, a group of foreign merchants proposed a plan to make Shanghai a “free and independent city”; The plan, although presented to the consuls, was ultimately rejected by the respective governments on the grounds that it would avoid direct interference in China’s internal affairs.

After this period of unrest, Shanghai entered a new and growing phase from 1860. With the signing of the “Treaty of Peking” and the opening of the Yangtze River and the northern ports to foreign trade, Shanghai’s strategic position at the mouth of the river and in the middle of the Chinese coastline became even more important. From this time on, a new wave of foreign merchants—first British and then American, and later merchants from continental European countries such as Prussia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden and Belgium, as well as Japanese merchants after 1871—made the city their main base of business. New consulates were established, and a British group[1] became one of the most prominent commercial establishments in Shanghai. Furthermore, between the Treaty of Tianjin (1858) and the legalization of the opium trade in 1906, Shanghai became the most important port for importing opium in all of China.

The 1890s and 1900s were also full of political, military, and industrial upheaval for Shanghai. With the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, the situation in Shanghai became tense. Japan—which had been gaining increasing influence in China—declared Shanghai a neutral zone and promised not to spread the war to this international port. After China’s defeat in the war, Japan became one of the major powers active in China, in addition to dominating Korea and Taiwan, and gained numerous concessions in Hankou, Tianjin, and even more inland cities such as Chongqing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou; although its attempts to gain concessions in Shanghai failed. Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, foreigners were then allowed to set up factories in China, and countries such as Japan and Britain quickly built modern factories in the Yangshuo region on the lower Huangpu River. These developments made Shanghai a major industrial player in China, and the city became the country’s largest industrial center during this period. In 1893, the American concession in Shanghai was officially established, and in 1900, the French concession was expanded. On August 17, 1900, at the height of the Boxer Rebellion, Shanghai came under military control, and each of the foreign powers present in the city organized independent military and security forces to defend its privileges and interests. Overall, Shanghai went through a rapid path from chaos to growth from 1850 to 1900: from a battleground for internal and external interests to an international center of trade, industry, and the influence of world powers—a transformation that laid the foundation for the city’s transformation into one of the most important metropolises of the 20th and 21st centuries.

Shanghai in the Early Republican Era

In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution led to the rapid collapse of the Qing Dynasty and plunged Shanghai into chaos. The judicial power of the Mixed Court was then completely controlled by the consuls. On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established. Due to the change of dynasty, many remnants of the Qing Dynasty decided to take refuge in the Shanghai-controlled areas. The new powers of the Republic of China were still in their infancy. From the central government to local authorities, warlords held power, and society was in a state of disorder and chaos. However, at the same time, the Shanghai-controlled areas enjoyed unprecedented peace. In addition, these concessions accelerated their development economically and demographically, and a period of great prosperity for the Shanghai concessions began from 1912 to 1936. In 1914, World War I broke out. Although the battlefields in Europe were far away, the balance of power between the great powers was disrupted in the Shanghai Concessions. Britain and France, who held dominant positions in these Concessions, quickly pushed Germany and Austria out of the institutions and social life of the Concessions. Japan, Britain’s ally in Asia, was allowed to take the place vacated by Germany.

On August 14, 1917, China declared war on Germany, annulling all German and Austrian concessions in China, withdrawing its concessions in Hankou and Tianjin, and closing its consulates throughout the country, including those based in the Shanghai International Settlement. In 1918, World War I ended with an Allied victory, and a grand celebration was held in Shanghai. Just over a decade after the major expansion of the Shanghai International Settlement in 1899, due to Shanghai’s rapid economic development, most of the newly developed northern (commercial), western (residential), and eastern (industrial) areas had become part of the emerging urban area. At the Paris Peace Conference after World War I, Chinese representatives raised the issue of concessions, but to no avail. On May 7, 1919, a boycott of Japanese goods began in Shanghai, with volunteer groups protecting the concessions.

Shanghai from the 1920s to the 1990s

From the 1920s to the 1990s, Shanghai underwent a long period of political, social, and urban transformation, transforming the city from a scene of civil war and foreign intervention into a global economic metropolis. In August 1920, the Communist Party of China was secretly founded in the French Concession of Shanghai and held its First National Congress on July 23, 1921. In the early years of the Republic of China, although Shanghai was administratively part of Jiangsu Province, the Songgu military governors stationed in Shanghai were effectively under the supervision of the governors of Zhejiang; first Yang Shande and then Lu Yongxiang, both affiliated with the Anhui faction. In September 1924, Qi Shiyuan, the military governor of Jiangsu under the Xili faction, allied with Sun Chuanfang of Fujian and Zhang Wensheng of Anhui and launched an offensive against Lu Yongxiang. On September 18, Qi Shiyuan’s army took control of Hangzhou and Zhejiang Province, forcing Lu to retreat to Shanghai. In October of that year, a fierce battle between the two armies took place on the outskirts of Shanghai, after which Lu Yongxiang resigned on October 13 and fled to Japan, ending the Jiangsu–Zhejiang War. The conflict caused widespread destruction and a flood of refugees poured into the Shanghai concession. In January 1925, Qi Shiyuan was deposed by the Fengtian warlord Xing Xilian, and in October of that year, Sun Chuanfang drove Xing Xilian out and Shanghai came under his control. In late February 1927, Sun Chuanfang allied with the Fengtian faction to resist the Northern Expeditionary Army, and stationed Fengtian’s army, Bei Shucheng, in Shanghai, while Sun retreated to Yangzhou.

This decade also saw a peak in labor and anti-imperialist events. In May 1925, Gu Zhenghong, the owner of the Japanese No. 8 Cotton Factory, assassinated a striking workers’ representative, sparking widespread protests. On May 30, tens of thousands of workers and students entered foreign-controlled areas, and the arrest of some students on Nanjing Road, Shanghai’s busiest street, led to the declaration of martial law and the “May 30 Incident.” This incident sparked a wave of nationwide discontent against foreign powers; widespread strikes and boycotts were held, and demands such as the cancellation of unequal treaties and the end of foreign concessions were raised. As a result of this internal pressure, construction in the Shanghai International City came to a halt. On March 21, 1927, as the Northern Expeditionary Army approached, the Kuomintang’s Niu Yongjian and the Communist Party’s Zhou Enlai organized a large-scale workers’ uprising in Shanghai, taking control of the city outside the concession areas and establishing the Shanghai Municipal Provisional Government. However, the political rift between the right-wing Kuomintang and the left-leaning Wuhan government had deepened in early 1927. On March 24, as the Northern Expeditionary Army entered Nanjing, the “Nanjing Massacre” occurred, involving the killing of foreigners and the bombardment of the city by British and American naval forces.

On April 2, Kuomintang leaders—including Cai Yuanpei, Zhang Jingjiang, Wu Zhihui, and Li Shizheng—held a meeting in Shanghai and called for the “purge” of communists from the party. In parallel, the leaders of the Shanghai Green Gang (Huang Jinrong, Zhang Xiaolin, and Du Yuesheng) organized right-wing labor unions and took a stand against the communist-led General Workers’ Union. The foreign concessionaires were also concerned about a repeat of the events in Hankou, Jiujiang, and Nanjing, and declared their support after Chiang Kai-shek assured them of maintaining the status quo.

On the night of April 11, Du Yuesheng deceived, arrested, and killed Wang Shuhua—the chairman of the General Workers’ Union. On the morning of April 12, right-wing union forces emerged from the concession areas and attacked the strikers; the army disarmed the workers, killing and wounding over 300. On April 13, the General Workers’ Union held a protest meeting, and tens of thousands of people gathered in front of Zhou Fengchi’s headquarters, but the soldiers fired into the crowd, killing over a hundred. Chiang Kai-shek then ordered the dissolution of the Provisional Government, the General Workers’ Union, and the Communist Party organizations, and a wave of arrests and executions began. By April 15, more than 300 people had been killed, more than 500 arrested, and more than 5,000 missing. This event became known as the “April 12 Incident.” After that, the central organs of the Communist Party—which had been hiding in the French Concession since 1921—remained hidden on the Yunnan Road for several years until they were transferred to the Jiangxi Soviet Region in 1933.

The 1930s were the height of Shanghai’s prosperity. The instability of major ports such as Hankou, Guangzhou, and Hong Kong attracted many merchants to Shanghai. In 1928, with the capital being moved to Nanjing, many politicians also moved to

The Shanghai International City was relocated. As the city’s expansion was halted, high-rise construction intensified within its borders. After the Mukden Incident in 1931, tensions between China and Japan increased, and in January 1932, an incident between Chinese workers and a Japanese monk led to violent clashes, which led to the “Month-Long Battle of Shanghai”. Japan fielded three divisions (70,000 soldiers) and the Chinese Fifth Army under Zhang Zhizhong also entered the battle. A ceasefire was established in March, and the Shanghai Agreement was signed on May 5.

On August 13, 1937, one of the largest battles between China and Japan began. Chiang Kai-shek marched about 700,000 troops, including elite troops, into Shanghai. The battle lasted three months, and despite heavy resistance, Japan occupied almost all of Shanghai except for the concession areas. The Zhabei area was almost completely destroyed. From the end of the war until 1941, the French Concession and the southern areas of the International Settlement experienced a long period of isolation.

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the war to Shanghai, and the next day Japanese forces entered the International Settlement. They maintained the administrative structure but detained nationals of the belligerent countries. The French Concession—due to its Vichy affiliation—was not occupied, but in 1943 France, followed by the United States and Britain, relinquished their concessions. Wang Jingwei’s regime reclaimed the French Concession and then the International Settlement, renaming 240th Street. With the defeat of Japan in 1945, Shanghai returned to the control of the Nationalist government. However, civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the economic collapse of the government areas, and on May 27, 1949, the People’s Liberation Army entered Shanghai and captured the city.

In the 1950s, Chen Yi, commander of the Third Field Army, became the first mayor of Shanghai. During this period, administrative structures changed, with Shanghai and Beijing becoming the only remaining municipalities. In 1958, 10 counties from surrounding provinces were annexed to Shanghai, increasing the city’s area from 636 to 5,910 square kilometers. Food shortages were severe in the 1950s and early 1960s; from early 1957, the per capita meat ration was only 125 grams every ten days, and by the second half of 1961, there was almost no pork available.

In the 1980s, economic reforms challenged Shanghai’s position, and cities such as Shenzhen and Guangdong experienced rapid growth. After the 1989 protests, Shanghai students and workers also participated in the anti-corruption movement. Party Secretary Jiang Zemin closed down the newspaper World Economic Herald[2]. In the 1990s, Shanghai once again became China’s economic center, and the development of Pudong (from 1993) accelerated the city’s growth. The construction of the Nanpu (1991), Yangpu (1993) and then Lupu (2003) bridges, as well as tunnels under the Huangpu River, strengthened the connection between Pudong and Puxi. During this period, the Oriental Pearl TV Tower (1994), Jinmao Tower (1999) and the Shanghai International Convention Center (1999) were put into operation, and the modern face of the city was formed.

Shanghai in the 21st century

Since the development of Pudong, Shanghai has hosted many important international conferences, which have increased its international influence and demonstrated the rapid economic and social development of mainland China. On October 21, 2001, Shanghai hosted the Ninth Informal Leaders’ Meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.[3] On June 15, 2006, the Sixth Summit of the Council of Heads of State of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization was held in Shanghai.[4] In addition, numerous trade fairs and events with various themes are held in Shanghai every year. The exhibition and trade show industry has become one of the important industries in Shanghai. In 2008, the Shanghai World Financial Center became the tallest building in mainland China at that time. On November 15, 2009, US President Obama made his first visit to China, and Shanghai was his first destination. During his stay in Shanghai, Obama delivered a speech and talked to Chinese youth. On April 30, 2010, the Shanghai World Expo, the first world expo held in China, opened and ended on October 31. In August 2013, the Shanghai Tower, which is currently the second tallest skyscraper in the world and the tallest building in China, was structurally completed. On June 16, 2016, at 12 noon, Shanghai Disneyland, located in Pudong, Shanghai, was officially opened. On August 22 of the same year, the “Shanghai Urban Master Plan (2016-2040) (Draft)” was released. On December 31, 2017, the entire 45-kilometer public space along the Huangpu River was opened to the public. As of December 30, 2018, the Shanghai Metro had 16 lines and 460 stations with an operating distance of 772 kilometers, making it the second-longest urban rail transit system in the world in terms of total line length. On January 7, 2019, the Shanghai Tesla Gigafactory[5], located in the Nanhui New Town Industrial Zone in Pudong New Area, Shanghai, officially began construction, with Elon Musk attending the groundbreaking ceremony. The factory produces an average of one car every 40 seconds. In March 2022, Shanghai witnessed a cluster outbreak of COVID-19, the largest cluster outbreak before China’s zero-COVID policy ended, and static management was implemented across the city until June 1. On May 28, 2023, the first commercial flight of China’s first domestically-built narrow-body commercial aircraft, developed and assembled in Shanghai, took place with China Eastern Airlines from Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport.

Geography and climate of Shanghai

Shanghai, abbreviated as Hu, is a prefecture-level administrative region of China located in eastern China. It is bordered to the east by the East China Sea (which is made up of the separated from Jeju Island, South Korea, and Kyushu Island, Japan), it is bordered to the south by Hangzhou Bay and to the north and west by Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. Historically known as Hu, Shencheng, and Mudu, Shanghai has a subtropical monsoon climate and administers 16 districts. Shanghai is located at 31°14′N and 121°29′E. Shanghai covers an area of ​​6,341 km2 (3,925 km2 of urban area), which is 0.06% of the total area of ​​China. The city is located in the center of China’s coastline, guarding the mouth of the Yangtze River. Located on the edge of the Yangtze River Delta alluvial plain, the city is bordered by the East China Sea to the east, the Yangtze River to the north, the Hangzhou Bay to the south, and the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the west. Shanghai’s natural islands are divided into two main systems: oceanic islands and inland river islands. Oceanic islands are mainly distributed in the northern estuary of the Yangtze River and the southern region of Hangzhou Bay. There are three inhabited islands: Chongming Island, Changxing Island, and Hengsha Island, and 23 uninhabited islands (sandbanks) such as Dajinshan Island, Sheshan Island, and Jiuduansha. These islands are mainly natural islands. The islands located in the northern estuary of the Yangtze River are mainly Chongming Island, Changxing Island, and Hengsha Island, with some small sandbanks. These three islands are the largest islands in Shanghai. The islands of Hangzhou Bay include Dajinshan Island in Jinshan District and Sheshan Island, 35 kilometers east of Chongming Island. The Yangpu District, located in the Huangpu River, has Fuxing Island, the only inland river island in Shanghai. In addition, Mao Island, Liuhe Island, and Liuhe Island are located in the middle of the Huangpu River. Chongming Island was formed by the deposition of a large amount of silt carried by the Yangtze River. In the first year of the Tang Dynasty (618 AD), the island was just two small sand dunes in the Yangtze River, with an area of ​​only about ten square kilometers. After several changes, it is now about 80 kilometers wide from east to west and about 10-15 kilometers wide from north to south, with an area of ​​1,041 square kilometers. It is known as the “gateway of the Yangtze River and the East Sea Island”, and is the largest alluvial island in the world and the third largest island in China. Changxing Island and Hengsha Island are located at the mouth of the Yangtze River, south of Chongming Island, dividing the river into two channels, the north and the south. Changxing Island, commonly known as Yawusha, has only been on the water for about a hundred years and is divided into five parts: Shitusha, Ruifangsha, Panjiasha, Yawusha and Jindaisha. The island has gradually become an island in the past 40 years. It is located opposite Wusong. Hengsha Island is located to the east of Changxing Island and consists of Hengsha Island and Yuansha Island, with an area of ​​about 40 square kilometers. Jiuduansha is a sand island formed by sedimentation on the south side of the deep channel of the Yangtze River Estuary. Its total area is 420 square kilometers (-6 meters), of which 145 square kilometers is above the zero-meter line of Wusong. There is currently no permanent population living there. In 2000, the Shanghai Jiuduansha Wetland Nature Reserve was established.

Shanghai’s climate is a subtropical monsoon climate with four distinct seasons, abundant sunshine and abundant rainfall. The climate is temperate and humid. According to the China Seasonal Division Standard, the normal seasonal distribution of the Shanghai urban area in the new century (2001-2024) is as follows: spring (March 9 – May 15) and autumn (October 5 – December 4) are relatively short, summer (May 16 – October 4) is the longest season, and winter (December 5 – March 8 of the following year) is the second longest season. There are three rainy seasons: spring rain, plum rain and autumn rain. Therefore, the flood season in Shanghai is from May to September, and the rainfall reaches about 60% of the annual total. From mid-July to August of each year, the dry season begins, which is wetter and warmer than the usual months. Due to Shanghai’s location on the southeast coast, tropical storms (typhoons) from the Pacific Ocean often pass through or affect the area during the summer and early autumn each year. The coldest season of the year is from mid-January to early February. Frost will occur due to the intrusion of cold air from the Mongolian Plateau and Siberia in the north. If a strong cold air mass arrives and coincides with a warm, humid air mass, Shanghai will also experience hail or snowfall.

Population of Shanghai

After Shanghai was opened to foreign trade, people from various regions quickly flocked there. Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Anhui were the main sources of Shanghai residents, and they merged with the local population to form the Shanghainese of today’s Shanghai Municipality. Before 1843, Shanghai was mainly inhabited by local residents. In 1843, Shanghai’s population was approximately 200,000. With the rapid growth of trade after the opening of the port and a relatively stable political environment, a large number of comprador merchants who had previously lived in Guangdong, wealthy merchants from Wu and Yu who had fled the Taiping Rebellion, and people from northern Jiangsu who had escaped the floods, left their hometowns and settled in Shanghai. By 1853, Shanghai’s population had reached 540,000. In the late Qing Dynasty, the number of immigrants to Shanghai increased rapidly, greatly exceeding the number of local residents. In 1885, immigrants accounted for 85%, in 1930 for 78%, and in 1949 for 84.9% of Shanghai’s population.

Table 2. Main indicators of Shanghai’s permanent resident population (2016-2023)

year	Permanent resident population at the end of the year (millions)	Number of births (thousands)	Number of deaths (thousands)	Birth rate (per thousand)	Death rate (per thousand)	Natural growth rate (in thousand)
۲۰۱6	24.1970	21.84	12.08	9.00	5.00	+4.0
۲۰۱7	24.1833	19.70	12.90	8.10	5.30	+2.8
۲۰۱8	24.2378	17.40	13.00	7.20	5.40	+1.8
۲۰۱9	24.8134	16.90	13.30	7.00	5.50	+1.5
۲۰۲0	24.8836	—	—	—	—	—
۲۰۲1	24.8943	11.60	13.90	4.67	5.59	–0.92
۲۰۲2	24.7589	10.80	14.80	4.35	5.96	–1.61
۲۰۲3	24.8745	9.80	15.80	3.95	6.37	–2.42

As one of the largest cities in China, Shanghai’s population problem is complex and multifaceted. The local population has been declining since 1993. Although this trend has slowed somewhat in recent years due to a birth boom, the local population growth is essentially zero.

According to censuses and random surveys, Shanghai has consistently had the second-lowest total fertility rate in the country since 1995, only slightly higher than Beijing. Since 2000, Shanghai’s total fertility rate has been between 0.67 and 0.74, only one-third of the replacement level. There are different opinions about the impact of continued population growth on Shanghai’s economic and social development. For example, those who support population control and limiting population size argue that continued population growth also puts significant pressure on Shanghai’s resources. Shanghai’s current permanent population is still increasing at a rate of hundreds of thousands of people per year. Overpopulation has led to the increase in the cost of living and pollution in Shanghai, which has led to the decline in the quality of life, traffic congestion, and the increase in the crime rate of the floating population, and has brought public security problems. Shanghai’s local culture has been greatly affected and even on the verge of extinction. At the same time, the structure and quality of the migrant population are also inconsistent with the industrial structure. Another perspective believes that viewing the population solely as a burden is short-sighted. The increase in population density will lead to the development of urban agglomeration economy, the distribution of public service costs, the reduction of living service prices and per capita energy consumption, the reduction of the aging of the registered population, the creation of a diverse urban life, and the full play of the driving role of the main city in the surrounding areas and inland areas. The mere use of administrative tools to limit the size of the population is contrary to the law of market development, which hinders the urbanization of the migrant population, creates real urban segregation, the widespread separation of people and households, the separation of families and children left behind, and also hinders social justice and mobility.

Shanghai is also facing the problem of population aging. By the end of 2010, the number of elderly people aged 60 and above in Shanghai had reached 3.3102 million, accounting for 23.4% of the city’s registered population, 10 percentage points higher than the national average. Media reports predict that with the continued low birth rate, the elderly population in Shanghai will reach 29% by 2015, and the elderly will account for 35.2% of the total registered population by December 31, 2019, and will reach 40% by 2030. Another notable point is the distribution of high-density residential areas in the Lianyang New Community in Pudong. Pudong New Area is one of the areas in Shanghai with the fastest population growth. In 2010, Shanghai’s population density was 3,631 people per square kilometer, making it one of the most densely populated cities in China. However, the population distribution in Shanghai is uneven. The population density in the traditional city center and along the Huangpu River is very high, with some areas exceeding 30,000 people per square kilometer. While the population density in the suburbs and Chongming Island is only a few hundred people per square kilometer. In 2010, Shanghai had an urban population of 20.5551 million, accounting for 89.3% of the total population of Shanghai, ranking among the top cities in China in terms of urbanization. From the 1990s to the late 2000s, the Shanghai Municipal Government vigorously promoted suburban development and urban renewal, leading to the migration of a large number of residents who originally lived in the city center to the suburbs. Many people from other areas also settled in the suburbs (Minhang, Songjiang, etc.). This led to the gradual reduction of population density in the city center of Shanghai and the reduction of congestion in the central city area.

At the end of 2024 and the beginning of 2025, the resident population was 24,802,600 with an urbanization rate of 89.85%. The urban population was 22,280,000, the rural population was 2,520,000, and the registered population was 14,967,700. The annual birth rate was 118,000, the death rate was 156,000, the birth rate was 4.75%, the death rate was 6.28%, and the natural growth rate was -1.53%.

Shanghai’s Business, Economic, Social and Cultural Status

As the most advanced urban hub in China, Shanghai is not only the country’s financial and industrial center but also one of the key drivers of the global economy. While consolidating its position in the global economy, Shanghai is facing multifaceted challenges, including negative natural population growth, aging, the increasing need for the development of new technologies, environmental requirements, and the need to improve the social welfare system. The 5.4% increase in total foreign trade volume shows that Shanghai has returned to growth after the fluctuations of 2022-2023. More importantly, the 11.3% growth in exports is against a very limited growth in imports (1.1%). This pattern suggests that the main driver of growth is the export-oriented sector, not import demand. This could reflect: strengthening foreign demand for Chinese goods, the increasing competitiveness of Shanghai’s products, and the cyclical adjustment of raw material imports. The data shows that Shanghai’s foreign trade is undergoing structural changes, such that we can see the rise of the private sector and the retreat of state-owned enterprises. Private enterprises have become the main engine of export growth (+28.5%) and import growth (+26.6%). State-owned enterprises have faced a sharp decline in imports (-29.6%), which indicates their declining role in global supply chains or the government’s structural reform. Foreign-invested companies have seen a decline in both exports and imports, which could indicate a shift in part of the supply chain to more inland China or Asia. In fact, the key message of this trend is that the economy

1. Macro indicators of foreign trade

Index	Amount	Growth compared to the previous year
Total volume of foreign trade	3341.081 میلیارد یوان	+5.4%
Export	1478.717 میلیارد یوان	+11.3%
واردات	1862.363 میلیارد یوان	+1.1%

2. Business by type of business entity

نوع نهاد	صادرات (میلیارد یوان)	تغییر صادرات	واردات (میلیارد یوان)	رشد واردات
شرکت‌های دولتی	122.329	+2.3%	147.645	–29.6%
شرکت‌های خصوصی	714.592	+28.5%	600.137	+26.6%
شرکت‌های سرمایه‌گذاری خارجی	639.508	–1.1%	1112.131	–3.8%

3. Trading based on business methods

روش تجارت	صادرات (میلیارد یوان)	تغییر صادرات	واردات (میلیارد یوان)	رشد واردات
تجارت عمومی	851.509	+15.2%	1142.64	–0.3%
تجارت فرآوری	278.762	–4.8%	147.715	+6.2%

4. Major commercial products

گروه محصول	صادرات (میلیاردیوان)	تغییر صادرات	واردات (میلیارد یوان)	رشد واردات
ماشین‌آلات و محصولات الکترونیکی	966.534	+5.7%	814.108	+2.6%
محصولات با فناوری پیشرفته	446.119	+6.1%	601.579	+6.4%

 

1. Major export markets

بازار	صادرات (میلیارد یوان)	رشد نسبت به سال قبل
اتحادیه اروپا	237.676	+5.7%
ایالات متحده	163.114	–20.2%
ژاپن	94.298	+1.9%
هنگ‌کنگ	170.172	+43.5%

Recorded economic indicators show that Shanghai experienced steady growth in the financial, technology-driven and innovative sectors in 2024. The total trading volume of the financial market reached 3650.3 trillion yuan, up 8.2% year-on-year. This upward trend is also observed in the Shanghai Stock Exchange, where the total trading volume increased to 623.69 trillion yuan. However, the intra-sector growth pattern is unbalanced: equity trading increased by 20.9%, but debt trading decreased by 16.3%. This inverse symmetry is a sign of investors’ increasing reliance on the stock market as an area with higher potential returns and higher risk preferences. At the same time, the 66.7% decline in financing through new equity offerings reflects regulatory tightening, prudent macroeconomic conditions and the decline in issuers’ appetite for large “initial public offerings”[6]. In terms of financial innovation, Shanghai has continued its internationalization path through the “Global Institutional Investor Cluster” and the “Global Operations” program. The launch of new centers in the field of international reinsurance, the registration of data transactions on the Shanghai Data Exchange, and the development of new instruments such as container shipping futures contracts have taken the city a step further in the global financial value chain.

In the field of technological innovation, the number of “small giants” or special-innovation enterprises reached more than 2,900 units, and 7,237 new high-tech enterprises were registered in 2019. The amount of R&D tax exemptions exceeded 96 billion yuan, reflecting the policy directed towards the creation of scientific added value. More than 151,000 patents were registered, of which 51,000 were inventions, representing a growth of 14.3%. The increase in the number of valuable patents to 57.9 per 10,000 people is a testament to Shanghai’s innovation strength and global competitiveness.

One of the most outstanding developments in Shanghai is the remarkable expansion of digital infrastructure and the development of integrated e-government services. Gigabit network coverage has reached 9.64 million households, and the average home Internet speed is now 461 Mbps. In addition, with the establishment of more than 82,000 5G Internet stations and about 428,000 small indoor stations, the 5G Internet network has reached almost complete city coverage. The “Integrated Government Service Platform” now covers 3,758 services, of which 3,352 services can be completed completely online. An average of 430,000 digital transactions per day, coupled with a 99.95% satisfaction rate in the “good/bad” index, has made Shanghai one of the most advanced digital governance systems in the world. The integration of the “SuiShen Code” system, which now covers more than 84 million people, has enabled the simultaneous management of urban objects and real users, and has laid the foundation for an “integrated smart city.”

Shanghai’s education system will be one of the largest in China by 2024, with 48 institutes of further education, 69 universities and 923 secondary schools. The number of postgraduate students has reached 269,000, and the number of undergraduate and graduate students has reached 587,000. Statistics on adult education, online education and senior education institutions show that Shanghai is expanding the concept of “lifelong learning”. The existence of 316 senior education centers reflects the need to respond to the needs of a society with a rapidly aging age structure.

The number of patents, the growth of technology transformation contracts (worth 520 billion yuan), and the performance of the “Science and Technology Innovation Board”[7] also show that the city is not only a producer of technology but also a key platform for its commercialization and financing.

With 20 public libraries, 171 registered museums and 144 national-level tourist attractions, Shanghai has become one of the important cultural centers of Asia. The city has also hosted a series of major international sporting events, including the Formula One Grand Prix[8], the Tennis Masters[9] and the Motorcycling Championship[10]. The addition of 953,000 square meters of new sports facilities and the growth of senior sports centers reflect the health-oriented development policy and the increase in physical participation among all age groups. In terms of social welfare, extensive investment has been made in the field of pension and medical insurance. The number of participants in the basic pension insurance of urban employees has reached 17.14 million, and the medical insurance coverage is 16.3 million (employees) and 3.8 million (urban and rural residents) separately. In the field of elderly care, 43 new comprehensive service centers have been established, and the capacity of nursing care beds has increased to 169,000. Subsidies for people with disabilities have also reached 887 million yuan.

Shanghai’s environmental investment in 2024 reached 104.9 billion yuan. Air quality was also “good or excellent” on 88.5% of the days of the year. Significant reductions in pollutants such as “suspended particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less”[11] and “nitrogen dioxide”[12] indicate the positive performance of air quality management programs. In terms of safety, 382 work-related accidents were recorded during the year, resulting in 395 deaths. Despite these figures, the pass rate of food, drug and medical equipment safety tests was above 98%, indicating the relative adequacy of the public health supervision system. In 2024, more than 1,040 hectares of new green space and 299 kilometers of green paths were created. The number of urban and rural parks reached 973, one of the highest figures among major cities in China. This green development trend is part of Shanghai’s “Living City” policy.

Conclusion

Data analysis shows that Shanghai is passing through a It is a period in which rapid economic and technological growth is intertwined with demographic, welfare and environmental challenges. Shanghai’s economy is sustainable, innovative and increasingly international. Its digital infrastructure and e-governance system are unparalleled in the world. However, negative natural growth, rapid aging and the gap between registered and permanent residents are shaping the city’s future strategic challenges. However, cultural, welfare, educational and environmental development represent a broad effort by the local government to maintain the quality of life in what is considered one of the most rapidly developing urban environments in the world.

Sources

A Brief History of Shanghai history and timeline, Insight Guides, available at:

https://www.insightguides.com/destinations/asia-pacific/china/historical-highlights/a-brief-history-of-shanghai

Shanghai Municipal Government. (2025). Welcome to Shanghai: Overview of economic and demographic statistics 2024–2025. Shanghai Municipal Government. https://english.shanghai.gov

Statista. (2025). Shanghai – statistics & facts. Statista. https://www.statista.com/topics/6673/shanghai/

Statista. (2025). China: Population of Shanghai municipality 2024. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1133227

World Population Review. (2025). Shanghai population 2025. WorldPopulationReview.com.

China-Business Guide. (2025). Investing in Shanghai: Industry, economics, and policy. China Briefing. https://www.china-briefing.com/doing-business-gui

En.Shio.gov.cn. (2025). Shanghai Basic Facts 2025. Shanghai Basic Facts. https://en.shio.gov.cn/TrueCMS/shxwbgs/upload/9432dca3-2e55-468c-93a5-3f99f66845cb.pdf

Gale Review Team (2023), “Researching the History of Shanghai Between the 1830s and 1950s”, available at:

https://review.gale.com/2023/12/05/researching-the-history-of-shanghai-between-the-1830s-and-1950s/

[1]. Swire

[2]. World Economic Herald

[3]. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

[4]. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

[5]. Tesla’s Gigafactory

[6]. Initial public offering (IPO)

[7]. Science and Technology Innovation Board (STAR)

[8]. Formula 1 Grand Prix

[9]. Masters Tennis

[10]. MXGP

[11]. PM 10

[12]. NO₂